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Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi menyadari pentingnya perencanaan kegiatan dan menyiapkan langkah-langkah yang perlu dilakukan bila terjadi hal-hal yang dapat menyebabkan pelayanan psikologi mengalami penghentian, terpaksa dihentikan atau dialihkan kepada pihak lain.
Sebelum layanan psikologi dialihkan atau dihentikan pelayanan tersebut dengan alasan apapun, hendaknya dibahas bersama antara Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi dengan penerima layanan psikologi kecuali kondisinya tidak memungkinkan. Jenis Rekam Psikologi adalah rekam psikologi lengkap dan rekam psikologi terbatas. Pelaksanaan dalam hal ini harus di bawah pengawasannya, yang dapat dalam bentuk tertulis atau lainnya. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi wajib memegang teguh rahasia yang menyangkut klien atau pengguna layanan psikologi dalam hubungan dengan pelaksanaan kegiatannya.
Penggunaan keterangan atau data mengenai pengguna layanan psikologi atau orang yang menjalani pemeriksaan psikologi yang diperoleh Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi dalam rangka pemberian layanan Psikologi, hendaknya mematuhi hal-hal sebagai berikut;.
Dalam kondisi tersebut indentitas orang yang menjalani pemeriksaan psikologi tetap dijaga kerahasiaannya. Seandainya data orang yang menjalani layanan jasa dan atau praktik psikologi harus dimasukkan ke data dasar data base atau sistem pencatatan yang dapat diakses pihak lain yang tidak dapat diterima oleh yang bersangkutan maka Ilmuwan Psikologi dan atau Psikolog harus menggunakan kode atau cara lain yang dapat melindungi orang tersebut dari kemungkinan untuk bisa dikenali.
Data hasil pemberian layanan psikologi hanya dapat digunakan untuk tujuan ilmiah atau profesional. Ilmuwan Psikologi dan Psikolog tidak saling berbagi untuk hal-hal yang seharusnya menjadi rahasia pengguna layanan psikologi peserta riset, atau pihak manapun yang menjalani pemeriksaan psikologi , kecuali dengan izin yang bersangkutan atau pada situasi dimana kerahasiaan itu memang tidak mungkin ditutupi.
Saling berbagi informasi hanya diperbolehkan kalau diperlukan untuk pencapaian tujuan konsultasi, itupun sedapat mungkin tanpa menyebutkan identitas atau cara pengungkapan lain yang dapat dikenali sebagai indentitas pihak tertentu.
Dalam hal ini, pencatatan atau pemotongan pajak mengikuti aturan sesuai hukum yang berlaku. Data dan informasi hasil pemeriksaan psikologi bila diperlukan untuk kepentingan pendidikan, data harus disajikan sebagaimana adanya dengan menyamarkan nama orang atau lembaga yang datanya digunakan.
Iklan dan Pernyataan publik yang dimaksud dalam pasal ini dapat berhubungan dengan jasa, produk atau publikasi profesional Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi di bidang psikologi, mencakup iklan yang dibayar atau tidak dibayar, brosur, barang cetakan, daftar direktori, resume pribadi atau curriculum vitae, wawancara atau komentar yang dimuat dalam media, pernyataan dalam buku, hasil seminar, lokakarya, pertemuan ilmiah, kuliah, presentasi lisan di depan publik, dan materi-materi lain yang diterbitkan.
Pernyataan tersebut harus disampaikan dengan ;. Bila mengetahui adanya pernyataan yang tergolong penipuan atau pemalsuan terhadap karya mereka yang dilakukan orang lain, Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi berusaha untuk menjelaskan kebenarannya. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikolog bertanggung jawab atas pengumuman, katalog, brosur atau iklan, seminar atau program non gelar yang dilakukannya. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi memastikan bahwa hal yang diberitakan tersebut menggambarkan secara akurat tentang tujuan, kemampuan tentang pelatih, instruktur, supervisor dan biaya yang terkait.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi dalam memberikan keterangan pada publik melalui media cetak atau elektronik harus berhati-hati untuk memastikan bahwa pernyataan tersebut:. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi dalam menjelaskan kemampuan atau keahliannya harus bersikap jujur, wajar, bijaksana dan tidak berlebihan dengan memperhatikan ketentuan yang berlaku untuk menghindari kekeliruan penafsiran di masyarakat.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi menjunjung tinggi profesionalitas dan senantiasa terus meningkatkan kompetensinya. Berkaitan dengan hal tersebut Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi perlu dihargai dengan imbalan sesuai profesionalitas dan kompetensinya.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi harus memberitahu pihak yang bersangkutan terlebih dahulu bahwa tindakan tersebut akan dilakukan, serta memberi kesempatan untuk dapat menyelesaikan permasalahan sebelum tindakan hukum dilakukan. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi membagi imbalan dengan profesional lain, atasan atau bawahan, pembayaran terhadap masing-masing harus berdasarkan jasa dan atau praktik yang diberikan dan sudah diatur sebelum pelaksanaan pelayanan psikologi dilakukan.
Psikolog dan atau Psikologi memastikan keakuratan data dan laporan pemeriksaan psikologi kepada pembayar jasa atau sumber. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi dapat menerima benda atau imbalan non uang dari pengguna layanan psikologi sebagai imbalan atas pelayanan psikologi yang diberikan hanya jika tidak bertentangan dengan kode etik dan pengaturan yang dihasilkan tidak eksploitatif.
Standar ini tidak membatasi pendidik atau pelatih untuk memodifikasi isi program pendidikan atau persyaratan jika dari sisi pendidikan dipandang penting atau dibutuhkan, selama peserta didik diberitahukan akan adanya perubahan dalam rangka memungkinkan mereka untuk memenuhi persyaratan pendidikan.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi mengambil langkah yang tepat guna memastikan rencana pendidikan dan atau pelatihannya berdasar perkembangan kemajuan pengetahuan terkini dan sesuai dengan materi yang akan dibahas. Hal tersebut tidak diberlakukan, kecuali jika :. Bila suatu terapi individual atau kelompok merupakan persyaratan dalam suatu program atau pengajaran, psikolog bertanggung jawab bahwa program terapi tersebut tersedia.
Terapi yang disyaratkan tersebut diberikan oleh praktisi atau ahli terapi dalam bidangnya yang tidak berhubungan dengan program atau pengajaran tersebut. Pengajar yang bertanggung jawab terhadap evaluasi dan prestasi akademik mahasiswa tidak boleh memberikan terapi yang disyaratkan.
Informasi mengenai proses tersebut diberikan pada awal pengawasan. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi dalam melaksanakan penelitian diawali dengan menyusun dan menuliskan rencana penelitian sedemikian rupa dalam proposal dan protokol penelitian sehingga dapat dipahami oleh pihak-pihak lain yang berkepentingan. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi membuat desain penelitian, melaksanakan, melaporkan hasilnya yang disusun sesuai dengan standar atau kompetensi ilmiah dan etik.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi memperhatikan dan bertanggung jawab atas etika penelitian dalam merencanakan, melaksanakan dan melaporkan hasil penelitian yang dilakukan atau yang dilakukan pihak lain di bawah bimbingannya. Konsultasi yang dimaksud dapat meliputi yang berkaitan dengan kompetensi dan kewenangan misalnya badan-badan resmi pemerintah dan swasta, organisasi profesi lain, komite khusus, kelompok sejawat, kelompok seminat, atau melalui mekanisme lain.
Dalam hal ini termasuk izin penelitian dari instansi terkait dan dari pemangku wewenang dari wilayah dan badan setempat yang menjadi lokasi. Pelanggaran terhadap hal ini dan adanya tindakan penyalahgunaan wewenang dapat dikenai butir pelanggaran seperti tercantum dalam pasal dan bagian-bagian lain dari Kode Etik ini misalnya pelecehan seksual dan bentuk pelecehan lain.
Sebelum pengambilan data penelitian tetapi setelah memperoleh izin penelitian Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi menjelaskan pada calon partisipan penelitian dengan menggunakan bahasa yang sederhana dan istilah-istilah yang dipahami masyarakat umum tentang penelitian yang akan dilakukan. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi menjelaskan kepada calon partisipan asas kesediaan sebagai partisipan penelitian yang menyatakan bahwa keikutsertaan dalam penelitian yang dilakukan bersifat sukarela, sehingga memungkinkan pengunduran diri atau penolakan untuk terlibat.
Partisipan harus menyatakan kesediaannya seperti yang dijelaskan pada pasal yang mengatur tentang itu. Dalam rangka mendapat persetujuan dari calon partisipan, Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi menjelaskan proses penelitian. Secara lebih terinci informasi yang penting untuk disampaikan adalah :. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi menjelaskan sifat dari penelitian tersebut, berikut risiko, kewajiban dan keterbatasannya.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi sebelum merekam suara atau gambar Untuk pengumpulan data harus memperoleh izin tertulis dari partisipan penelitian. Persetujuan tidak diperlukan bila perekaman murni untuk kepentingan observasi alamiah di tempat umum dan diantisipasi tidak akan berimplikasi teridentifikasi atau terancamnya kesejahteraan atau keselamatan partisipan penelitian atau pihak-pihak terkait. Bila pada suatu penelitian dibutuhkan perekaman tersembunyi, Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi melakukan perekaman dengan tetap meminimalkan risiko yang diantisipasi dapat terjadi pada partisipan, dan penjelasan mengenai kepentingan perekaman disampaikan dalam debriefing.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi tidak harus meminta persetujuan partisipan penelitian, hanya jika penelitian melibatkan individu secara anonim atau dengan kata lain tidak melibatkan individu secara pribadi dan diasumsikan tidak ada risiko gangguan pada kesejahteraan atau keselamatan, serta bahaya-bahaya lain pada partisipan penelitian atau pihak-pihak terkait.
Penelitian yang tidak harus memerlukan persetujuan partisipan antara lain adalah:. Penjelasan harus diberikan sedini mungkin agar calon partisipan dapat mengambil keputusan yang terbaik untuk terlibat atau tidak dalam penelitian. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi memperhatikan peraturan Negara dan standar profesional apabila menggunakan hewan sebagai objek penelitian. Standar profesional yang dimaksud diantaranya bekerjasama atau berkonsultasi dengan ahli yang kompeten.
Hal-hal yang harus diperhatikan adalah:. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi yang sedang melakukan penelitian dengan hewan perlu memastikan bahwa semua orang yang terlibat dalam penelitiannya telah menerima petunjuk mengenai metode penelitian, perawatan dan penanganan hewan yang digunakan, sebatas keperluan penelitian, dan sesuai perannya.
Hal tersebut dimaksudkan untuk menghindari kekeliruan penafsiran serta menyesatkan masyarakat pengguna jasa psikologi. Hal-hal yang harus diperhatikan adalah :. Ketentuan ini tidak termasuk data yang dipublikasi ulang jika disertai dengan penjelasan yang memadai.
Untuk kepentingan ini, sejawat atau profesional lain yang memerlukan data tersebut wajib mengajukan persetujuan tertulis sebelumnya. Karya cipta yang dimaksud dapat berbentuk penelitian, buku teks, alat tes atau bentuk lainnya harus dihargai dan dalam pemanfaatannya memperhatikan ketentuan perundangan mengenai hak cipta atau hak intelektual yang berlaku.
Penyajian sebagian atau keseluruhan elemen substansial dari pekerjaan orang lain tidak dapat diklaim sebagai miliknya, termasuk bila pekerjaan atau sumber data lain itu sesekali disebutkan sebagai sumber. Kepemilikan atas posisi struktural institusional, misalnya kepala bagian atau pemimpin lembaga, tidak membenarkan pencantuman nama yang bersangkutan bila ia memang tidak berkontribusi nyata dalam penelitian atau penulisan.
Mahasiswa atau orang yang dibimbing tetap harus didaftar sebagai pengarang atau anggota tim pengarang bila publikasi tersebut merupakan karyanya. Artikel yang secara substansial disusun berdasarkan skripsi, tesis dan atau disertasi mahasiswa tetap harus mencantumkan nama mahasiswa tersebut.
Psikologi forensik adalah bidang psikologi yang berkaitan dan atau diaplikasikan dalam bidang hukum. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi yang menjalankan tugas forensik memahami aturan hukum yang berlaku dan implikasinya terhadap peran dan wewenang mereka.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi menyadari adanya kemungkinan konflik antara kebutuhan untuk menyampaikan informasi dan pendapat, dengan keharusan mengikuti aturan hukum yang ditetapkan sesuai sistem hukum yang berlaku. Psikolog dan atau ilmuwan Psikologi berusaha menyelesaikan konflik ini dengan menunjukkan komitmen terhadap kode etik dan mengambil langkah-langkah untuk mengatasi konflik ini dalam cara-cara yang dapat diterima. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi dapat melakukan penelitian di bidang forensik secara umum tetapi tidak terkait langsung dengan penanganan kasus di bidang psikologi forensik.
Penanganan kasus ini hanya dapat dilakukan oleh psikolog. Praktek Psikologi forensik tersebut meliputi pelaksanaan asesmen, evaluasi psikologis, penegakan diagnosa, konsultasi dan terapi psikologi serta intervensi psikologi lain dan hal-hal lain dalam kaitannya dengan proses hukum misalnya evaluasi psikologis bagi pelaku atau korban kriminal; sebagai saksi ahli; evaluasi kompetensi untuk hak pengasuhan anak; program asesmen, konsultasi dan terapi di lembaga pemasyarakatan, mediasi konflik.
Bila tidak dilakukan pemeriksaan menyeluruh karena keadaan tidak memungkinkan, Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi menjelaskan keterbatasan yang ada, serta melakukan langkah-langkah untuk membatasi implikasi dari kesimpulan atau rekomendasi yang dibuatnya. Bila tidak dilakukan pemeriksaan menyeluruh karena keadaan tidak memungkinkan, Psikolog menjelaskan keterbatasan yang ada, serta melakukan langkah-langkah untuk membatasi implikasi dari kesimpulan atau rekomendasi yang dibuatnya.
Bila kemungkinan terjadi konflik antara kebutuhan untuk menyampaikan pendapat dan keharusan mengikuti aturan hukum yang ditetapkan dalam kasus di pengadilan, psikolog berusaha menyelesaikan konflik ini dengan menunjukkan komitmen terhadap Kode Etik dan mengambil langkah-langkah untuk mengatasi konflik dengan cara-cara yang bisa diterima.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi harus mengindari untukmenjalankan peran majemuk. Bila peran majemuk terpaksa dilakukan kejelasan masing-masing peran harus ditegaskan sejak awal dan tetap berpegang teguh pada azas profesionalitas, obyektivitas serta mencegah dan meminimalkan kesalahpahaman.
Hal-hal yang harus diperhatikan bila peran majemuk terpaksa dilakukan :. Bila peran majemuk terpaksa dilakukan, misalnya sebagai konsultan atau ahli serta menjadi saksi di pengadilan, kejelasan masing-masing peran harus ditegaskan sejak awal bagi Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi, serta pihak-pihak terkait, untuk mempertahankan profesionalitas dan objektivitas, serta mencegah dan meminimalkan kesalahpahaman pihak-pihak lain sehubungan dengan peran majemuknya.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi harus tetap dapat bersikap profesional dalam memberikan pandangan serta menjaga atau meminimalkan terjadinya konflik antara berbagai pihak. Kurang dipahaminya kode etik tidak dapat menjadi alasan untuk mempertahankan diri ketika melakukan kesalahan atau pelanggaran. Asesmen Psikologi adalah dilaksanakannya prosedur observasi, wawancara, pemberian satu atau seperangkat instrumen atau alat tes yang bertujuan untuk melakukan penilaian dan atau pemeriksaan psikologi.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi menggunakan teknik asesmen psikologi, wawancara atau observasi, pemberian satu atau seperangkat instrumen tes dengan cara tepat mulai dari proses adaptasi, administrasi, penilaian atau skor, menginterpretasi untuk tujuan yang jelas baik dari sisi kewenangan sesuai dengan taraf jenjang pendidikan dan kompetensi yang disayratkan, penelitian, manfaat dan teknik penggunaan.
Hal-hal yang harus diperhatikan berkaitan dengan proses asesmen adalah :. Instrumen asesmen ditetapkan hanya dapat digunakan sesuai dengan populasi yang diujikan pada saat pengujian validitas dan reliabilitas. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi harus menjelaskan kekuatan dan kelemahan dari instrumen tersebut serta interpretasinya.
Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi tidak mendasarkan keputusan asesmen, intervensi atau saran dari data hasil tes yang sudah kadaluarsa untuk digunakan pada saat sekarang. Dalam kondisi relatif konstan hasil tes dapat berlaku untuk 2 tahun, namun dalam kondisi atau keperluan khusus harus dilakukan pengetesan kembali. Administrasi asesmen psikologi adalah pedoman prinsip dasar yang harus dipatuhi dalam melakukan proses asesmen psikologi. Termasuk dalam proses asesmen psikologi adalah observasi, wawancara dan pelaksanaan psikodiagnostik.
Tes ini dapat dilakukan oleh siapa saja non psychologist termasuk dalam kategori ini adalah vocational proficiency test. Asesmen psikologi perlu dilakukan oleh pihak-pihak yang memang berkualifikasi, perlu dihindari untuk menggunakan orang atau pekerja yang tidak memiliki kualifikasi memadai.
Untuk mencegah asesmen psikologi oleh pihak yang tidak kompeten :. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi harus memperoleh persetujuan untuk melaksanakan asesmen, evaluasi, intervensi atau jasa diagnostik lain sebagaimana yang dinyatakan dalam standar informed consent , kecuali jika. Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi dalam menginterpretasi hasil asesmen psikologi harus mempertimbangkan berbagai faktor dari instrumen yang digunakan, karakteristik peserta asesmen seperti keadaan situasional yang bersangkutan, bahasa dan perbedaan budaya yang mungkin kesemua ini dapat mempengaruhi ketepatan interpretasi sehingga dapat mempengaruhi keputusan.
Data asesmen ini menjadi kewenangan Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi yang melakukan pemeriksaan. Jika diperlukan data asesmen dapat disampaikan kepada sesama profesi untuk kepentingan melakukan tindak lanjut bagi kesejahteraan individu yang menjalani pemeriksaan psikologi. Hasil asesmen menjadi kewenangan Psikolog dan atau Ilmuwan Psikologi yang melakukan pemeriksaan dan hasil dapat disampaikan kepada pengguna jasa.
Hasil ini juga dapat disampaikan kepada sesama profesi, profesi lain atau pihak lain sebagaimana yang ditetapkan oleh hukum. Hal yang harus diperhatikanadalah kemampuan bahasa dan istilah Psikologi yang dipahamipengguna jasa. Oleh karena itu sebelum terapi dilaksanakan, psikolog sebagai terapis perlu mendapatkan persetujuan tertulis Informed Consent dari orang yang menjalani pemeriksaan psikologis, setelah mendapatkan informasi yang perlu diketahui terlebih dahulu.
Hal-hal yang perlu diinformasikan sebelum persetujuan terapi ditandatangani oleh orang yang akan menjalani terapi adalah sebagai berikut:Hal-hal yang perlu diantisipasi tentang terapi adalah:. Ketika Psikolog memberikan jasa terapi pada beberapa orang yang memiliki hubungan keluarga atau pasangan misal : suami istri, significant others , atau orangtua dan anak maka perlu diperhatikan beberapa prinsip dan klarifikasi mengenai hal-hal sbb:.
Lihat pasal 19 dan 20 tentang Kerahasiaan. Ketika Psikolog memberikan jasa praktik psikologi dan terutama terapi pada beberapa orang dalam suatu kelompok, psikolog harus menjelaskan peran dan tanggung jawab semua pihak serta batasan kerahasiaannya.
Psikolog saat memutuskan untuk menawarkan atau memberikan jasa kepada orang yang akan menjalani terapi yang sudah pernah mendapatkan terapi dari sejawat psikolog lain, harus mempertimbangkan hal-hal sebagai berikut :. Psikolog saat menyepakati kontrak terapi dengan orang yang menjalani pemeriksaan psikologi sehingga terjadi hubungan profesional yang bersifat terapeutik, maka psikolog tersebut senantiasa berusaha menyiapkan langkah-langkah demi kesejahteraan orang yang menjalani terapi termasuk apabila terjadi hal-hal yang terpaksa mengakibatkan terjadinya penghentian terapi dan atau pengalihan kepada sejawat psikolog lain sebagai rujukan.
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Andrew Meltzoff, a surveyor in this study, states that the result makes sense, that if the baby's "alert time" is spent in front of DVDs and TV, instead of with people speaking, the babies are not going to get the same linguistic experience.
Dimitri Chistakis, another surveyor reported that the evidence is mounting that baby DVDs are of no value and may be harmful. Adaptive instructional materials tailor questions to each student's ability and calculate their scores, but this encourages students to work individually rather than socially or collaboratively Kruse, Social relationships are important, but high-tech environments may compromise the balance of trust, care and respect between teacher and student.
Massively open online courses MOOCs , although quite popular in discussions of technology and education in developed countries more so in the US , are not a major concern in most developing or low-income countries. One of the stated goals of MOOCs is to provide less fortunate populations i. With the Internet and social media, using educational apps makes the students highly susceptible to distraction and sidetracking.
Even though proper use has shown to increase student performances, being distracted would be detrimental. Another disadvantage is an increased potential for cheating. Smartphones can be very easy to hide and use inconspicuously, especially if their use is normalized in the classroom.
These disadvantages can be managed with strict rules and regulations on mobile phone use. Electronic devices such as cellphones and computers facilitate rapid access to a stream of sources, each of which may receive cursory attention. Michel Rich, an associate professor at Harvard Medical School and executive director of the center on Media and Child Health in Boston, said of the digital generation, "Their brains are rewarded not for staying on task, but for jumping to the next thing.
The worry is we're raising a generation of kids in front of screens whose brains are going to be wired differently. Although these technologies affect adults too, young people may be more influenced by it as their developing brains can easily become habituated to switching tasks and become unaccustomed to sustaining attention.
Technology is "rapidly and profoundly altering our brains. This leads to heightened stress levels on the brain that, at first, boost energy levels, but, over time, actually augment memory, impair cognition, lead to depression, alter the neural circuitry of the hippocampus, amygdala and prefrontal cortex. These are the brain regions that control mood and thought.
If unchecked, the underlying structure of the brain could be altered. When children are exposed before the age of seven, important developmental tasks may be delayed, and bad learning habits might develop, which "deprives children of the exploration and play that they need to develop. According to Lai, "the learning environment is a complex system where the interplay and interactions of many things impact the outcome of learning. If technology monopolizes an activity, students can begin to develop the sense that "life would scarcely be thinkable without technology.
Leo Marx considered the word "technology" itself as problematic, [] susceptible to reification and "phantom objectivity", which conceals its fundamental nature as something that is only valuable insofar as it benefits the human condition. Technology ultimately comes down to affecting the relations between people, but this notion is obfuscated when technology is treated as an abstract notion devoid of good and evil.
Langdon Winner makes a similar point by arguing that the underdevelopment of the philosophy of technology leaves us with an overly simplistic reduction in our discourse to the supposedly dichotomous notions of the "making" versus the "uses" of new technologies and that a narrow focus on "use" leads us to believe that all technologies are neutral in moral standing.
Winner viewed technology as a "form of life" that not only aids human activity, but that also represents a powerful force in reshaping that activity and its meaning. In education, standardized testing has arguably redefined the notions of learning and assessment. We rarely explicitly reflect on how strange a notion it is that a number between, say, 0 and could accurately reflect a person's knowledge about the world.
According to Winner, the recurring patterns in everyday life tend to become an unconscious process that we learn to take for granted. Winner writes,. By far, the greatest latitude of choice exists the very first time a particular instrument, system, or technique is introduced. Because choices tend to become strongly fixed in material equipment, economic investment, and social habit, the original flexibility vanishes for all practical purposes once the initial commitments are made.
In that sense, technological innovations are similar to legislative acts or political foundings that establish a framework for public order that will endure over many generations. When adopting new technologies, there may be one best chance to "get it right". Seymour Papert p. Now that typing has become a digital process, this is no longer an issue, but the QWERTY arrangement lives on as a social habit, one that is very difficult to change.
Neil Postman endorsed the notion that technology impacts human cultures, including the culture of classrooms, and that this is a consideration even more important than considering the efficiency of a new technology as a tool for teaching.
What we need to consider about the computer has nothing to do with its efficiency as a teaching tool. We need to know in what ways it is altering our conception of learning, and how in conjunction with television, it undermines the old idea of school. There is an assumption that technology is inherently interesting so it must be helpful in education; based on research by Daniel Willingham, that is not always the case.
He argues that it does not necessarily matter what the technological medium is, but whether or not the content is engaging and utilizes the medium in a beneficial way. The concept of the digital divide is a gap between those who have access to digital technologies and those who do not. According to a report by the Electronic Frontier Foundation , large amounts of personal data on children are collected by electronic devices that are distributed in schools in the United States.
Often, far more information than necessary is collected, uploaded and stored indefinitely. Aside from name and date of birth, this information can include the child's browsing history, search terms, location data, contact lists, as well as behavioral information.
The transition from in-person learning to distance education in higher education due to the COVID pandemic has led to enhanced extraction of student data enabled by complex data infrastructures. These infrastructures collect information such as learning management system logins, library metrics, impact measurements, teacher evaluation frameworks, assessment systems, learning analytic traces, longitudinal graduate outcomes, attendance records, social media activity, and so on.
The copious amounts of information collected are quantified for the marketization of higher education, employing this data as a means to demonstrate and compare student performance across institutions to attract prospective students, mirroring the capitalistic notion of ensuring efficient market functioning and constant improvement through measurement. The monetization of student data in order to integrate corporate models of marketization further pushes higher education, widely regarded as a public good, into a privatized commercial sector.
Since technology is not the end goal of education, but rather a means by which it can be accomplished, educators must have a good grasp of the technology and its advantages and disadvantages. Teacher training aims for effective integration of classroom technology. The evolving nature of technology may unsettle teachers, who may experience themselves as perpetual novices. Random professional development days are inadequate. According to Jenkins, "Rather than dealing with each technology in isolation, we would do better to take an ecological approach, thinking about the interrelationship among different communication technologies, the cultural communities that grow up around them, and the activities they support.
There are two distinct issues of assessment: the assessment of educational technology [] [] and assessment with technology. Assessments of educational technology have included the Follow Through project. Educational assessment with technology may be either formative assessment or summative assessment.
Instructors use both types of assessments to understand student progress and learning in the classroom. Technology has helped teachers create better assessments to help understand where students who are having trouble with the material are having issues. Formative assessment is more difficult, as the perfect form is ongoing and allows the students to show their learning in different ways depending on their learning styles. Technology has helped some teachers make their formative assessments better, particularly through the use of classroom response systems CRS.
The instructor then asks multiple choice or true or false questions and the students answer on their device. Summative assessments are more common in classrooms and are usually set up to be more easily graded, as they take the form of tests or projects with specific grading schemes. One huge benefit of tech-based testing is the option to give students immediate feedback on their answers. When students get these responses, they are able to know how they are doing in the class which can help push them to improve or give them confidence that they are doing well.
Electronic assessment uses information technology. It encompasses several potential applications, which may be teacher or student-oriented, including educational assessment throughout the continuum of learning, such as computerized classification testing , computerized adaptive testing , student testing , and grading an exam. E-Marking is an examiner led activity closely related to other e-assessment activities such as e-testing, or e-learning which are student-led.
E-marking allows markers to mark a scanned script or online response on a computer screen rather than on paper. There are no restrictions on the types of tests that can use e-marking, with e-marking applications designed to accommodate multiple choice, written, and even video submissions for performance examinations. E-marking software is used by individual educational institutions and can also be rolled out to the participating schools of awarding exam organisations.
Ofqual reports that e-marking is the main type of marking used for general qualifications in the United Kingdom. In June , the Odisha state government in India announced that it planned to use e-marking for all Plus II papers from The importance of self-assessment through tools made available on educational technology platforms has been growing. Self-assessment in education technology relies on students analyzing their strengths, weaknesses and areas where improvement is possible to set realistic goals in learning, improve their educational performances and track their progress.
Analytics is data gathered on the student's activities on the learning platform, drawn into meaningful patterns that lead to a valid conclusion, usually through the medium of data visualization such as graphs. Learning analytics is the field that focuses on analyzing and reporting data about student's activities in order to facilitate learning. The five key sectors of the e-learning industry are consulting, content, technologies, services and support.
Educational technologists and psychologists apply basic educational and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science or a technology of learning or instruction. In research, these professions typically require a graduate degree Master's, Doctorate, Ph. In industry, educational technology is utilized to train students and employees by a wide range of learning and communication practitioners, including instructional designers , technical trainers , technical communication and professional communication specialists, technical writers , and of course primary school and college teachers of all levels.
The transformation of educational technology from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville et al. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Use of technology in education to improve learning and teaching. For the mechanical devices, see Teaching machine. Not to be confused with Online machine learning. Main article: Educational software.
Main articles: Educational psychology , E-learning theory , Learning theory education , and Educational philosophies. See also: Instructional design. Main article: Computer-supported collaborative learning. Main article: Flipped classroom.
Further information: Social media in education. Main articles: Whiteboard and Interactive whiteboard. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. March Learn how and when to remove this template message. Main article: Learning management system. This section does not cite any sources.
Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Main article: Learning object. Main article: Artificial intelligence. Main article: Primary education. Main article: Online learning in higher education. Main article: Digital divide.
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